polar

0

Pronunciation key

( pōlẽr )

po•lar

adj.

[ML. polaris < L. polus; see POLE].

  1. Connected with or in the vicinity of the North or South Poles.
  2. Pertaining to poles or a pole.
  3. Containing polarity.
  4. Central or pivotal.
  5. Characterized by two opposite extremes, nature or directions.
  6. Serving for guidance, like a earth pole or polestar.
  7. Measured from a pole or reference to, i.e., polar diameter or distance.
  8. Traveling in a polar orbit.

Polar Exploration

Arctic
Image credit: Arctic Grab
The Arctic and Arctic Ocean in relation to Canada, Europe and Russia

Polar exploration had its earliest beginning in the 16th century quest for a northern passage in an aim to locate Asia. Before 1576, there is no record of search for a passage around North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans. The first known endeavor was commanded by Queen Elizabeth in that year to Sir Martin Frobisher to search for such a route to the Far East by way of the northwest but his mission was never accomplished. In 1845 Sir John Franklin may have reached the goal but his entire crew and himself disappeared and no certain knowledge of his accomplishments are known.

Richard Chancellor, Willem Barents, Henry Hudson and others searched for the elusive Northwest Passage but were repetitively blocked by ice. Sir Francis Drake, Captain Cook, and Captain George Vancouver searched for the Northwest Passage from perspective of the Pacific.

Antarctica remained the only continent unknown to the world in the early 19th century. However, in 1820 the Antarctic Peninsula was spotted by two seal hunters Nathaniel B. Palmer (United States) and Edward Bransfield (England).

William E. Parry attempted to reach the North Pole by sledge in 1827.

A U.S. Naval expedition commanded by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes sailed over 1500 miles along the coast of Antarctica in 1840. Wilkes evidenced land enough to provide evidence of the mass being a a continent, although a vast majority of its surface was covered in ice.

In 1893-1896 Fridtjof Nansen had hope that the currents would carry it to the pole, but his ship, the Fram became frozen in the sea ice. Nansen and Fredrik Hjalmar Johanson abandoned ship and struck out for the pole on foot. Ultimately they were rescued by Franz Josef Land.

These discoveries led to two groups of explorers who wished to reach the South Pole. One was led by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and the second by Captain Robert Falcon Scott of the British Navy. The former's skill with sled dogs made it possible to reach the pole on December 14, 1911, several weeks before Scott. It was a short time after Scott and crew arrived at the pole, they were frozen to death.

Exploration of the Arctic, the opposite pole, had its beginning in the 1840's after the disappearance of an expedition commanded by the British explorer Sir John Franklin and 129 men who had journeyed to the Arctic in 1845 in search of the Northwest Passage. Following that event, many teams of men went to search in the Arctic region for Franklin and company. Their bodies were never found but the search parties journeyed farther west through the Arctic islands north of mainland Canada. During 1903-1906 Roald Amundsen completed sail through the Arctic islands on the ship Gjöa, reaching the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, Amundsen was the first to accomplish navigation of the Northwest Passage, an endeavor which explorers worldwide had tried to accomplish for several centuries. Sir Robert McClure was given a formal award for the discovery of the Northwest Passage while on a searching expedition (1850-1854) for the lost Sir John Franklin.

Roald Amundsen's Exploration of the Polar Region and Discovery of the Northwest Passage
Roald Amundsen's Exploration of the Polar Region and Discovery of the Northwest Passage

The Northeast Passage was finally sailed by Adolf Nordenskjöld from east to west in 1878-1879.

Hundreds of attempts to reach the North Pole was undertaken, inspired by discoveries in the North Pole. One party was led by an American explorer, Robert E. Peary, who reached the pole on April 6, 1909. His expedition team included Matthew A. Henson, an aide and four Eskimos. One week before Peary returned from the expedition, Frederick A. Cook, another American claimed that he too had reached the North Pole during April 1908, a year earlier. The dispute which erupted was never satisfactorily settled.
Peary and Henson are generally credited with having reached the North Pole. They also conducted a series of exploratory expeditions which lasted 11 years.

Arctic and Antarctic explorations began to become less dangerous after the airplane was invented. Two Americans Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett from Spitsbergen and flew directly over the North Pole in 1926. Byrd and Bernt Balchen, a Norwegian-American pilot flew over the South Pole in 1929.

Antarctica
Image credit: Mapping, Austrian Govt.
Antarctica and South Pole

The first expedition to completely cross overland on the continent of Antarctica was accomplished in 1957-1958. It was achieved under leadership of Sir Vivian E. Fuchs, a British geologist, an expedition which included equipment such as snow tractors to carry them across the frozen land. They drove a total of 2,158 miles and a total of 99 days to complete this feat. In 1958, the United States nuclear powered submarine Nautilus was the first to pass beneath the Arctic ice to the location of the North Pole.

References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Peoples Encyclopedia ©1960
  • The World Book Encyclopedia ©1981
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge ©1991
  • Further Reading

  • Exploration
  • Read More »

    expurgation

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ek′spẽr-gāshən )

    ex•pur•ga•tion

    n.

    [L. expurgatio].

    1. Act of expurgating or being expurgated.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • Further Reading

  • expurgate
  • expurgator
  • expurgatory
  • Read More »

    expressivity

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik′spres-ivi-tē )

    ex•pres•siv•i•ty

    n.

    1. Characteristic of being expressive.
    2. Genetics. Degree to which a specific gene affects the phenotype of a living organism.

    References

  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • express
  • expressage
  • expressible
  • expression
  • expressionism
  • expressionist
  • expressionistic
  • expressionistically
  • expressionless
  • expressive
  • expressly
  • expressman
  • express rifle
  • express train
  • Read More »

    exposure

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-spōzhẽr )

    ex•po•sure

    n.

    [< expose, after enclosure etc].

    1. In various senses, the act or instance of exposing or condition of being exposed, especially to natural elements.
    2. A position on a compass and climatic or weather conditions. For instance, a location of something in relation to natural elements like the sun and wind in relation to a house's location, such being western exposure.
    3. Abandonment without benefit of shelter or food.
    4. Photography.
      • Subjecting sensitized photographic film or plate to the action of actinic rays.
      • Sensitized surface or segment of a film or plate utilized to make one picture.
      • The amount of time and radiant energy needed to expose such a surface of the film or plate.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Read More »

    expostulation

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-spos′chə-lāshən )

    ex•pos•tu•la•tion

    n.

    [L. expostulatio].

    1. Remonstrance. Corrective protest. Expostulating.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • Further Reading

  • expostulate
  • expostulator
  • expostulatory
  • Read More »

    exposition

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ek′spə-zishən )

    ex•po•si•tion

    n.

    [ME. exposicioun; OFr. exposition; L. expositio < expositus pp. of exponere see EXPOUND].

    1. Presentation of facts, ideas, etc. Setting forth meaning and intention. A detailed explanation.
    2. Specific statement which aims to give information about more complex material. Writing or speaking that explains and distinguished from description, narration, argumentation.
    3. [< Fr.] Large public show or exhibition which often presented internationally in scope such as artistic or industrial developments.
    4. Theater. Segment of a play that is revealing about the theme or previous events leading up to it, and who the characters are, etc.
    5. Music. Opening section of a composition such as the sonata or fugue which introduce primary theme or themes.
    6. Obs. Act of exposing or being exposed.

    The first U.S. International Exposition was convened in 1853, in New York, in a small scale copy of London's Crystal Palace.
    Image credit: American People's Encyclopedia 1960
    The first U.S. International Exposition was convened in 1853, in New York, in a small scale copy of London's Crystal Palace.

    An exposition is a public display of natural or manufactured and commercial products that collectively are put in exhibition to advertise products of particular or varied localities. The concept of the exposition may be traced back to fairs held throughout various European nations during their early history. More modern development of the concept is generally credited to the French, who sponsored the first great commercial exhibition in Paris in 1798. However, before this, in 1756, the London Society of Arts sponsored a show of agricultural and other machinery. There was another small scale exhibition in 1791, sponsored in Prague.

    The Court of the Seven Seas, the Fountain of Western Waters and the Tower of the Sun were a significant part of The Golden Gate International exposition of 1939 at San Francisco
    Image credit: American People's Encyclopedia 1960
    The Court of the Seven Seas, the Fountain of Western Waters and the Tower of the Sun were a significant part of The Golden Gate International exposition of 1939 at San Francisco.

    Great international exhibitions began with the opening of the World's Fair in the Crystal Palaca, Hyde Park, London on May 1, 1851. The exhibition building was entirely constructed with glass and iron with exception to the flooring and joists. Over 6,170,000 individuals visited and the exhibition lasted 23 weeks.

    In 1855, the Paris International Exhibition was held. For the first time, international collections of pictures were a significant feature. The International Exhibition of Vienna in 1873, was the most important exposition that had yet been held, and the largest. Over 6,740,500 people visited over a period of six months. The International Centennial Exposition held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was the first world's fair which involved art and industry to be held in the United States. The expo celebrated the 100th anniversary of American independence and made exhibition of the nation's growth of technology since the Declaration of Independence.

    The world's finest cattle, sheep and other livestock are exhibited at the International Livestock Exposition, held annually in Chicago, Illinois
    Image credit: International Live Stock Exposition
    The world's finest cattle, sheep and other livestock are exhibited at the International Livestock Exposition, held annually in Chicago, Illinois.

    In 1889, the Universal Exhibition was held in Paris and surpassed all of its predecessors, occupying a site of 173 acres with the Eiffel Tower as its primary attraction. The next grand scale exhibition was held in Chicago, Illinois, the World's Columbian Exposition and lasted from May 1-October 30, 1893. Its purpose was to commemorate the fourth centenary of the discovery of America. It was designed and planned under the supervision of Daniel H. Burnham and John W. Root. The expo had a significant architectural influence on public buildings. Its 150 buildings represented the work of many famed architects in America.

    The Century of Progress exposition was sponsored in the city of Chicago in 1933 and 1934. The general exhibits building is to the left. The cables were supported by the two towers for the famed sky ride.
    Image credit: UP
    The Century of Progress exposition was sponsored in the city of Chicago in 1933 and 1934. The general exhibits building is to the left. The cables were supported by the two towers for the famed sky ride.

    The decades following the Columbian exposition, almost every year, with exception of encompassing World Wars, witnessed one or more international exhibition. Among these was another exhibition in Paris, in 1900, and promoted by the French Republic and following by the very successful Glasgow Exhibition in 1901. The Pan-American Exposition which celebrated the progress of Western civilization during the 19th century was sponsored in Buffalo, New York in 1901. President McKinley was assassinated on September 6, 1901in the Temple of Music at that fair.

    In 1904, The Louisiana Purchase Exposition which celebrate the centenary of acquiring territory from France was sponsored in St. Louis, Missouri. The Jamestown Tercentenary Exposition was held from April 26 to November 30, 1907 at Hampton Roads, Virginia to commemorate the three hundred year anniversary of the first permanent colony of English-speaking people on the American continent. It included a fascinating marine exhibit including the most modern samples of sea powder from around the world. In 1910, The Brussels Exposition, Belgium. Another expedition was sponsored from April 30 to October 31, 1911 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the kingdom of Italy in Turin. It featured exhibits including art, science, and Italian technology and also included resources from around the world. In 1915, The Panama-Pacific Exposition which celebrated the opening of the Panama Canal and the 400th anniversary of the discovery of the Pacific Ocean was sponsored in San Francisco, California. In 1916, The Panama National Exposition which also commemorates the discovery of the Pacific was sponsored in the city of Panama. The Brazilian Exposition celebrating its centennial anniversary for the independence of Brazil was sponsored in Rio De Janeiro from 1922-1923.

    The South Bank exhibition in London was one of the foremost sections of the Festival in Britain in 1951. The Dome of Discovery, left, displayed numerous scientific exhibits.
    Image credit: British Information Services
    The South Bank exhibition in London was one of the foremost sections of the Festival in Britain in 1951. The Dome of Discovery, left, displayed numerous scientific exhibits.

    A Century of Progress Exposition was sponsored in Chicago, Illinois between 1933-1934. It was hosted on reclaimed ground in downtown Chicago near the shore of Lake Michigan. 48,769,227 individuals visited the expedition during the two years of operation. Architecture constituted one of the radical transformations in design and lighting, the Hall of Science, an imposing building, accommodated 80,000 people and housed exhibits related to mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geology and medical science.

    The most significant foreign exposition that was sponsored during this time period was in 1937, the Paris International Exposition. The city played host to around 30 million people who had came from all over the world. More than 40 nations were represented among the exhibits. The New Trocadero and the Museum of Modern Art became permanent structures after the exposition closed.

    On February 15,1939 the Golden Gate Exposition opened in San Francisco, celebrating the completion of the Bridge. Exhibitions were sent by numerous foreign countries, and over twenty million dollars worth of some of the most renown paintings and sculptures was assembled for the exhibit of fine and decorative arts.

    In 1939-1940, The New York World's Fair was sponsored in Flushing, Long Island commemorating the 150th anniversary of George Washington's inauguration and establishment of the U.S. government under the Constitution. The exposition's theme was summed up in the motto, "The World of Tomorrow" and was symbolized by the Trylon, a three-sided and slender obelisk that stood 700 ft in height, and Perisphere, a hollow globe which towered at 18 stories high and diameter of a city block which contained a diorama of the city of the future.

    Architect Louis Sullivan was praised for his transportation building's functional design at the World's Columbian exposition of 1893.
    Image credit: Chicago Art Institute
    Architect Louis Sullivan was praised for his transportation building's functional design at the World's Columbian exposition of 1893.

    After WWII, international trade expos developed as a stimulus to foreign trade. In western Europe, numerous trade expos of significance were inaugurated on an annual basis. The first United States International Trade Fair was hosted in Chicago in 1950. The following year, marked the centennial of the World's Fair in 1851 which was held in London, the Festival of Britain was celebrated across the United Kingdom for the purpose of displaying to the world the cultural and scientific contributions of Great Britain to modern civilization. In 1955, The Ethiopian Silver Jubilee Fair was sponsored in Addis Ababa, commemorating the 25th year of Emperor Haile Selassie's reign.

    Annual expositions were also hosted through the world. Among the most significant of these were the International Live Stock Exposition, sponsored annually in Chicago, Illinois; The Canadian National Exposition; The Paris International Trade Fair. By 1956, all of these had been annual events for over half a century except during wartime.

    —ex•pos′i•tive (ik-spoz′i-tiv) adj. —ex•pos′i•tory (ik-spoz′i-tôr′ē, -tōr′ē) adj. —ex•pos′i•tor n.

    Also see Exhibition.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The New World Family Encyclopedia ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Related Terms

  • expose
  • exposé
  • expositive
  • expositor
  • expository
  • Further Reading

  • Exposition (Definition)
  • Exposition (Definition)
  • Exposition (Definition)
  • Kentucky State Fair and Exposition
  • American Public Health Exposition
  • American Craft Exposition
  • Wisconsin State Exposition
  • Southeastern Wildlife Exposition
  • The World's Columbian Exposition
  • Natural History Museum: Exposition Park
  • Read More »

    exportation

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ek′spōr-tāshən )
    ( ek′spôr-tāshən )

    ex•por•ta•tion

    n.

    1. Process of exporting goods and services.
    2. An export; products or services.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Related Terms

  • export
  • Eximbank / Export Import Bank
  • Further Reading

  • Exportation (Definition)
  • Exportation (Definition)
  • Exportation (Definition - Use in A Sentence)
  • Exportation (Definition)
  • Exportation (Definition)
  • Exportation U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
  • Exportation (Definition)
  • Exportation: Settlement Disputes World Trade Organization, Measures related to exportation of raw materials.
  • Exportation, Cornell University, USC § 8304 - Exportation
  • Exportation, FDA Regulatory Procedures
  • Read More »

    exponentiation

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ek′spə-nen′shē-āshən )

    ex•po•nen•ti•a•tion

    n.

    1. Algebra. The process of raising a quantity to a power.

    References

  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • exponent
  • exponential
  • exponible
  • Read More »

    explosive

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( iks-plōsiv )
    ( ik-splōsiv )

    ex•plo•sive

    adj.

    1. Pertaining to, having the nature of or causing an explosion.
    2. Tendency to explode, tendency to burst forth violently.

    n.

    1. A prepared chemical substance that explodes.
    2. Phonetics. A stop. Pronounced with a sudden release of breath.

    A substance or mixture of substances whose chemical composition is designed upon particular stimulation such as detonation to burst with extreme violence, rapidly transforming from a solid or liquid into hot, expanding gas, undergoing a rapid chemical decomposition when acted upon by heat, percussion or by another form of detonation and formation of more stable products. When exploded, the solids and liquids are chemically altered to become and rapidly evolve large quantities of energy in the form of heat and gas at much greater volume than the original explosive. The energy of the expanding gases may be used for various industrial purposes such as mining, excavating, building and engineering construction. Because these gases are hot, they exert tremendous expansive force, or explosion. Hot gas expands rapidly and violently, because they need more space than the chemicals did in their natural state. (See expansion).

    Products of the decomposition of explosives are usually gases, such as with nitroglycerin and in some situations gases and solids as is the case with lead azide. Some explosives such as copper acetylide produce only solid by products. Gaseous explosion products typically have much greater volume than that of the explosive itself. Explosions also create a great deal of heat which inadvertently expands the explosive material as well as the surrounding air. The result is a rapid production of heavy gas pressure which can potentially accomplish tasks if manipulated in some manner such as in rock and blast holes. The amount of heat that is produced during the explosion is a major factor in how much work can be accomplished with it. A pressure wave of considerable force that strikes surrounding objects during the explosion. The chemical reaction during rapid chemical decomposition include oxidation of carbon, hydrogen and other easily oxidized elements. All the oxygen that is necessary for this reaction is contained within the material itself. Some explosives decompose without need for an oxidation reaction. One such example is lead azide.

    Expansion
    Expansion of molecular and sub-molecular particles subjected to heat.

    There are many substances and chemical mixtures capable of exploding, but only those used commonly for commercial and military purposes, specifically for their explosive properties are called explosives. For information on other explosive compounds and mixtures, see EXPLOSION. Explosives are often utilized in civilian and military tasks; in mining, where a trained professional tunnels through mountains, obstacle clearing such as clearing stumps off land, in waterways to remove rock from waterways for ships, open mines or sending out lifelines for shipwreck victims. During wartime, explosives are used by military expeditions to destroy cities, the sinking of ships, and killing the enemy. Explosives are also used as propellants for firearms and rockets, bursting charges for bombs, mines (including production of diamond dust from graphite), artillery projectiles, torpedoes and grenades, general engineering and demolition projects. Small-scale explosives have a vast array of use in industrial settings such as metallurgy, in which metals are pressed into dies, extruded or welded together by means of explosions. The creation of new metal alloys have been designed using such processes.

    The chemical makeup of almost all valuable explosives contain elements that include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The gases which are typically formed from an explosion are carbon dioxide, steam, nitrogen and some carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

    Many substances can be explosive; gasoline vapor, hydrogen and finely dispersed granules of grain or coal are all explosive but only those substances which are specifically designated to produce an explosion are generally labeled as explosives. These are divided into two types.

    Explosives and their Production
    Image credit: Hercules Powder Co.
    An explosives engineer inserts a detonating fuse into a fifty lb. cartridge of semi-gelatin dynamite mixture. The cartridges will be placed in a quarry in blast holes.

    • Propellant Explosives
    • The propellant used to drive shells, or bullets out of a gun must be a low explosive because if the energy that evolves too rapidly it would destroy the gun. Gunpowder, developed by the Chinese in the 10th century, and later independently by the Arabs, was the first explosive to be used in firearms although Greek fire, a prototype of gunpowder, was first used as a liquid flame in a 7th century naval battle. Black powder consisted of sulfur, saltpeter and carbon. Old-fashioned gunpowder was retired from use because solid compounds of potassium were left behind in the barrel and had to be cleaned out. Also, in military it was undesirable because the smoke and bright flash gave away one's position to the enemy. In 1838, a nitrocellulose explosive called Guncotten was developed but proved far too potent for its intended purpose as a firearms propellant. Nitrocellulose (made by treating purified cotton with nitric acid) by itself is an absorbent material. [(In 1847, nitroglycerin was introduced. Both are relatively dangerous but Alfred Nobel (1833-1896), founder of the Nobel Prizes discovered means to make them safer. By using this solution to absorb nitroglycerin Nobel made blasting gelatin, a powerful high explosive which is still safer to use than either material it is derived from.) See High Explosives.] Innovations in the 1880's, mainly by Nobel, resulted in smokeless powders which supplanted black powder as a propellant. Smokeless powders may be derived from nitrocellulose or nitroglycerin, perhaps both, and are compounded in such a way that their rate of reaction place them in the low explosive class. They are made into carefully designed size and shape grains, that they may deliver the necessary energy at a proper rate and complete the reaction before the projectile exits the muzzle, preventing the telltale flash. Innovations on propellents have been developed for reasons other than warfare, such as the space age, devising certain rocket propellants.

    • Detonating Explosives
    • Detonating explosives are subdivided into initiating and high explosives. Initiating explosives must be handled with great care and are the most sensitive. Materials such as mercury fulminate and lead azide explode when detonated by a slight percussion, ignited or burned making them valuable in smaller quantity for use in blasting caps for larger charges or safer explosives.
      High explosives are the less sensitive of the two and can be flammable without producing an actual explosion. They can only detonate with severe shock that is delivered by another explosive device located nearby. Therefore, for the most part it is possible to move and handle these substances relatively safe.
      In 1846-1847, Italian Ascanio Soberro invented Nitroglycerin. It was so sensitive that it was deemed virtually unusable. Later on however, it became quite important after the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel combined it with siliceous earth called kieselguhr (a highly absorbant type of natural earth), and wood pulp to create dynamite. Nitroglycerin is a liquid.
      TNT (trinitrotoluene) was first used in the early 20th century and became the standard which all explosives are measured by. TNT still possesses a specifal significance among explosives. It has replaced picric acid (trinitrophenol) which was used during World War I. It is used by itself or mixed with other ingredient to produce various subtypes with varying degrees of characteristic performance.

      Permissible explosives as was classified by the U.S. Bureau of Mines were explosive substances permitted for use in coal mines where a risk always presents the danger of igniting a mixture of coal dust and air. One unusual type of industrial explosive is LOX. It is produced by soaking carbon black with liquid oxygen. A prepared cartridge can be exploded either electrically or by using a fuse. A fuse typically is a combustible cord which smolders at a constant rate. However, if the fuse should fail and the oxygen has evaporated, the cartridge is rendered entirely safe.

    Explosives and their Production
    Image credit: E.I. Dupont De Nemours & Co.
    A critical step in producing dynamite is the initial production of nitroglycerin, with the provision of soaking this highly sensitive ingredient with water, when necessary. By comparison, the weighing and adding of ammonium nitrate, make it relatively safe due to its characteristic properties of low sensitivity and stability.
    Explosives and their Production
    Image credit: E.I. Dupont De Nemours & Co.

    There are two distinct types of explosives. Materials belonging to the type called "low explosives" undergo rapid combustion or deflagration. Combustion travels through these substances at rates up to about 400 meters per second. High explosives undergo detonation, a type of chemical decomposition that is nearly instantaneous and rates can range anywhere from about 1000 to 8500 meters per second.

    1. High Explosives
    2. Low Explosives

    High Explosives: High explosives undergo detonation, a type of chemical decomposition that is almost instantaneous. The reaction travels through these at an extremely high rate, somewhere in the range of 1000-8500 meters per second. These substances change from solids, liquids and gases in a matter of split seconds. The rate of detonation or speed at which the explosion travels through the materials may be as high as 4 miles per second. (Or six kilometers). Some of those which are classed among High Explosives include nitroglycerin, PETN, RDX, TNT, and a combination of TNT and PETN commonly called pentolite. Those which are especially sensitive to hot temperatures which render them unstable, are called primary explosives. These are used in designing devices called detonators, and are utilized in setting off the detonation of less sensitive explosive material. These materials are used industrially for demolition and in military use, for shells, bombs, mines, depth charges and similar devices. This class of explosive is based upon the ease in which they can be detonated. Some are sensitive enough to be exploded by simply heat or an impact and are initiating explosives due to the fact that they are often used to set off less sensitive explosive substances. The remaining high explosives, those considered to be too insensitive to be classed among initiating substances are known as non-initiating high explosives.

    Often TNT is mixed with another explosive to produce a binary explosive, such as Amatol with ammonium nitrate and Cyclotol and Cyclonite. These are melted and poured into the shell. Tritonal contains TNT and flake aluminum and is used in bombs. Cyclonite, also called RDX was used during World War II and prepared into a plastic mass to make demolition work convenient.

    Such classifications are never exclusive, 100% of the time. Nitrocellulose and some alternative substances can undergo either the deflagration reaction that is characteristic of low explosives or detonated, which is characteristic of high explosives.

    It is noteworthy to add that many explosives include the prefix "nitro" or "nitrate" in their name. The N in PETN stands for nitrate. Nearly all explosives in discussion, except LOX, contain nitrogen in combination with other elements as many of the compounds of nitrogen are readily decomposed, releasing a substantial volume of energy. Many explosives are designed with the action of nitric acid on some other material. Glycerin for nitroglycerin, toluene for trinitrotoluene, and so forth. Naturally, this is a dangerous operation and creates hazardous working conditions which must be carefully controlled. Manufacture of explosives are usually carried out in small, widely scattered structures.

    Annual consumption of industrial explosive materials are measured in tons. Military consumption, especially during wartime is tremendous. In such a case, it is important to obtain sufficient quantity of raw materials. TNT formerly was derived from coal tar, but now can be obtained from petroleum.

    Explosives and their Production
    Image credit: E.I. Dupont De Nemours & Co.
    High explosives proving their value as time saving with large-scale excavations. This picture features dynamite carefully tamped into place with a wood stick to prevent sparks.

    See Initial Detonating Agents, Non-Initiating High Explosives, High-Explosive Compositions, Liquid-Oxygen Blasting Explosives.

    Low Explosives: Used as propellent charges in firearms as priming compositions for igniting propellants and detonating agent as well as blasting materials. These substances possess a lower rate for detonation. One substance is gunpowder. Its explosion rate travels at about 3-300 ft per second but depends on other factors such as the pressure that surrounds the explosive. In actuality, it is more of a rapid burning. This combustion creates waves of pressure called shock waves that if becoming intense, can increase the rate of detonation. Low explosives are sub-divided into their compositions and purpose for which they are used.

    Gunpowder is a mixture of seven to eight parts of potassium nitrate (saltpeter) one to two parts of charcoal, and one part sulphur. Gunpowder was invented centuries ago, by the Chinese. Today it is used primarily for fireworks. A composition quite similar to gunpowder was described by Roger Bacon (1214?-1294) and firearms were used in 14th century Europe. "Black powder" was the only explosive known until the latter 19th century. Military use of black powder are confined to saluting charges and black blasting powder (prepared with sodium nitrate vs. potassium nitrate) is still used in coal mining.

    Black powder is classed among low explosives because the rate at which the explosive reaction travels in it is never more than about 1200 ft. per second. High explosives in contrast travel anywhere in the range of 3000 to 20,000+ ft. per second. Some explosive substances characteristically can behave as either a low or high explosive.

    Modern detonating explosive devices include PETN (pentaerythrite tetranitrate) that is used in blasting caps and a detonating cord; RDX (known as cyclonite) is combined with other substances that are volatile and waxes that are called plastic explosives; ammonium nitrate, which is of low detonation velocity, used when a slow push or heave is preferred over a shattering effect. Amatol, a mixture of ammonium nitrite and TNT which is used as a bursting charge. Ammonium nitrate is a constituent of many military high explosive compositions. Other explosives include Tetryl.

    See also acetylene handling dangers, aftershocks of nuclear explosion, ballistic explosive projectile design, black powder, blasting cap, chemical industry's nitrogen production, dynamite, dynamite use in tunneling, explosion and detonation theories, gunnery technology, gunpowder development, gunpowder in history of ammunition, gun propellant detonation, lead detonator production, mercury fulminate synthesis, nitrocellulose, military engineering history, mining explosives technology, missile warhead armament, nitroglycerin,nuclear fission bombs and energy, PETN, picric acid, piezoelectric grenade detonation, primer, Priming Compositions rare-earth ignition cautions, RDX, river-ice thawing by blasting, safe-cracking use, smokeless powders, technical development in the 1900's, trinitrotoluene, tunneling methods and equipment.


    The West Point Atlas of American Wars
    by Vincent J Esposito, United States Military Academy

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The New World Family Encyclopedia ©1955
  • The American Peoples Encyclopedia ©1960
  • Encyclopedia International ©1966 (Grolier Inc.)
  • The World Book Encyclopedia ©1981
  • Encyclopedia Britannica Micropedia ©1984
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge ©1991
  • Related Terms

  • explode
  • explosion
  • Further Reading

  • Hercules Powder Company, Commencing operations in 1881, the principal activity at the Hercules powder works was the manufacture of dynamite and later black powder and TNT.
  • Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms Federal Website
  • Chemistry of Explosive Powders
  • Explosive (Definition) Business Dictionary
  • Explosive (Definition)
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  • Intermittent Explosive Disorder
  • Explosive Thesaurus
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    explore

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( iks-plôr )
    ( iks-plōr )

    ex•plore

    v.t. [EXPLORED (-plôrd, -plōrd EXPLORING, EXPLORES]

    [L. explorare to search out, investigate; ex-, out + plorare, to cry out, wail].

    1. Systematically investigate, look into something closely, carefully examine, such as Explore all possibilities.
    2. To travel into an unknown or little known region and learn about its natural characteristics; its inhabitants, land, wildlife, etc.
    3. Medicine. Diagnostic examination of organs in the body.

    v.i.

    1. To make explorations.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • exploration
  • explorative
  • exploratory
  • explorer
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    explode

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( iks-plōd )
    ( ik-splōd )

    ex•plode

    v.t. [EXPLODED (-id), EXPLODING, EXPLODES]

    [Obs. orig., to drive off a stage by unrestrained hooting and general dissatisfaction; L. explodere < ex-, off + plaudere, to applaud].

    1. To discredit; demonstrating falsehood or show as unreliable; cause to become rejected; expose as false: such as The theory was exploded.
    2. To rapidly burst with a loud noise; violently blow up; detonate.
    3. A liberation of mechanical, chemical or nuclear energy in an explosion possibly due to internal pressure. Cause chemicals to rapidly and violently change from a solid or liquid to a quickly expanding gas that may be flammable.

    v.i.

    1. To become exploded; to loudly and violently burst.
    2. To loudly break forth such as, He exploded with rage.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Read More »

    explicit

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( iks-plisit )

    ex•pli•cit

    adj.

    [Fr. explicite < L. explicitus pp. of explicare to unfold. see EXPLICATE].

      • Expressed with clarity and stated precisely; distinctly expressed; leaving nothing subtle or implied; definate; distinguished from implicit.
      • Clearly defined and formulated.
    1. Forthright; stating unreservedly what is meant in expression, and without disguise. Outspoken. For instance, "He was explicit in his critique."

    —ex•plic′it•ly adv. —ex•plic′it•ness n.

    Syn. Explicit and Express apply to what is clearly stated rather than implied and so distinctly put forth that there should be no reason to doubt the meaning. Explicit applies specifically to situations where something is carefully spelled out, such as Explicit instructions. Express adds to explicit the ideas of directness and positiveness; the intention or will such as An express promise to finish her chores after one hour. Exact and Precise, both of which in this connection imply a strict definition, are stated accurately and fastidiously clear. Definite suggests precise limits to character, nature and meaning, etc. Specific conveys the pointing out of details or particularizing of references.

    Ant. vague, ambiguous.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Read More »

    explicative

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ekspli-kā′tiv )
    ( iksplikə′tiv )

    ex•plik•ca•tive

    adj.

    1. Explaining by explicating or tending to explicate. Explanatory. Serves to explain.

    —ex′pli•ca•tive n. —ex′pli•ca•tive•ly adv.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • explicable
  • explicate
  • explication de texte
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    explicate

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ekspli-kāt )

    ex•pli•cate

    v.t. [EXPLICATED (-id), EXPLICATING, EXPLICATES.]

    [L. < explicatus pp. of explicare to unfold, spread out; ex- out + plicare, to fold].

    1. To provide a coherent meaning to something obscure or implied; to make explicitly clear. To explain.
    2. .

    ex•pli•ca′tion n. ex′pli•ca′tor n.

    Syn. Explain.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • explicable
  • explication de texte
  • explicative
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    explicable

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ekspli-kə-bʼl )
    ( iks-plikə-bʼl )

    ex•pli•ca•ble

    adj.

    [L. explicabilis < explicare see EXPLICATE].

    1. That which is capable of being explained.

    ex′pli•ca•bly adv.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • explicate
  • explication de texte
  • explicative
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    expletory

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( eksplə-tō′ri )
    ( eksplə-tôr′i )

    ex•ple•to•ry

    adj.

    1. Expletive.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • expletive
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    explant

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ek-splant )

    ex•plant

    tr. v. [EXPLANTED, EXPLANTING, EXPLANTS]

    1. To take living tissue from its natural site of growth and place it in a medium or culture.

    n.

    1. The material or tissue that is explanted.

    ex′plan•ta′tion n.

    References

  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Read More »

    expletive

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ekspli-tiv )

    ex•ple•tive

    n.

    [LL. expletivus serving to fill < L. expletus, pp. of explere, to fill; ex-, out, up + plere, to fill].

    1. Oath or exclamation that is typically obscene or profane.
    2. Word, phrase, etc. that does not contribute to the sense or meaning of a phrase but used merely to fill out a sentence or metrical line, for rhythm, balance, etc.
    3. A word that stands alone with anticipation of following words or a phrase such as "There are many cars in the parking lot." The word There serves as an expletive.

    adj.

    1. Added or inserted to fill out a sentence, metrical line, etc.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • expletory
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    explanative

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-splanə-tiv )

    ex•plan•a•tive

    adj.

    1. Mannerism that is explanatory.

    References

  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • explain
  • explanation
  • explanatorily
  • explanatory
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    explanatory

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( iks-planə-tôr′i )
    ( iks-planə-tō′ri )

    ex•plan•a•to•ry

    adj.

    [LL. explanatorius].

    1. Serves or intends to explain. Tending to explain.

    —ex•plan′a•to′ri•ly adv.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • explain
  • explanation
  • explanative
  • explanatorily
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    explanatorily

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( iks-planə-tôr′ə-li )
    ( iks-planə-tō′rə-li )

    ex•plan•a•to•ri•ly

    adv.

    1. In manner that is explanatory; intended as an explanation.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • explain
  • explanation
  • explanative
  • explanatory
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    explanation

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( eks′plə-nāshən )

    ex•pla•na•tion

    n.

    [L. explanatio < pp. of explanare].

    1. Act of explaining.
    2. That which explains.
    3. Interpretation, meaning, or sense given in explaining.
    4. Mutual clarification of terms, declaration of motives, etc to reconcile and clear up a misunderstanding or settle a dispute.

    Act of Explanation. Enacted in 1665 in England. See Irish Restoration legislation.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • Encyclopedia Britannica Micropedia ©1984
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Related Terms

  • explain
  • explanative
  • explanatorily
  • explanatory
  • Further Reading

  • explanation (definition)
  • explanation (definition)
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    explain

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( iks-plān )
    ( ik-splān )

    ex•plain

    v.t. [EXPLAINED, EXPLAINING, EXPLAINS]

    [ME explanen < L. explanare to flatten, spread out; ex-, out + planare, to make level < planus clear, level, plain; sp. influenced by plain].

    1. To make comprehensible; clear, plain, understandable.
    2. Expound; to define by providing meaning or interpretation. "She explained the company's plan for expansion."
    3. To give justification behind a cause, make account for; stating reasons for such as explaining an error.

    v.i.

    1. To provide an explanation,
      • To explain away. To minimize. To dismiss or rid one self of an issue by explaining, to state reasons for so as to justify or make understandable.
      • explain oneself,
    2. To make clear what one means.
    3. To give reasons justifying one's conduct.

    Syn. These verbs mean to make the nature or meaning of something clear. Explain has the fewest special implications and suggests making clear and intelligible of some thing that is unknown or understood (such as how a car operates). Expound and Explicate imply typically studious and lengthy exploration which provides a systematic and thorough explanation, often one made by a person having expert knowledge such as expounding on a theory. Explicate suggests a scholarly analysis or exposition that is developed in detail such as explication of a Biblical passage. Elucidate suggests throwing light some way on a complex issue by clear and specific explanation, illustration, etc., such as elucidate a bank's policy on interest rates. Interpret implies bringing out meanings which are not immediately apparent, such as by foreign language translation, or searching insight or special knowledge into a more complex subject such as How do we interpret his body language? Construe implies a particular interpretation of something whose meaning is ambiguous and attempts to put a construction or interpretation on something such as Construe a smile as a sign of approval.

    —ex•plain′a•ble adj.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • explanation
  • explanative
  • explanatorily
  • explanatory
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    expiry

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-spīri )
    ( ekspə-ri )

    ex•pi•ry

    n. [pl. EXPIRIES (-riz)]

    [< expire + -y].

    1. An expiration of something such as a contract; a coming to an end; termination.
    2. Archaic. Death.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • expiration
  • expiratory
  • expire
  • Read More »

    expire

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-spīr )

    ex•pire

    v.t. [EXPIRED (-spīrd), EXPIRING]

    [ME. expiren < Fr. expirer; L. expirare, exspirare; ex-, out + spirare to breathe].

    1. To exhale, breathe out; as, air is expired from the lungs.
    2. Obs. to give off (an odor, etc).

    v.i.

    1. To breathe out air from the lungs.
    2. To breathe one's last breath; to die.
    3. To come to an end; terminate; stop; cease; as "His contract has expired."

    Syn. see die

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • expiration
  • expiratory
  • expiry
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    expiratory

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-spīrə-tôr′i )
    ( ik-spīrə-tō′ri )

    ex•pir•a•to•ry

    adj.

    1. Pertains to expiration; involves breathing out air from the lungs.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • expiration
  • expire
  • expiry
  • Read More »

    expiration

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ek′spə-rāshən )

    ex•pi•ra•tion

    n.

    [L. expiratio, exspiratio pp. of expirare see EXPIRE].

    1. The act of breathing out air from the lungs.
      • Something breathed out.
      • A sound made, etc. from breathing out,
    2. Breathing out such as one's last dying breath, therefore,
    3. The event of something coming to an end, terminating.
    4. Obs. Death.

    See Diaphragm.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The World Book Encyclopedia ©1981
  • Encyclopedia Britannica Micropedia ©1984
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Related Terms

  • expiratory
  • expire
  • expiry
  • Further Reading

  • expiration (definition)
  • expiration (definition)
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  • expiration (definition)
  • expiration date (definition)
  • expiration (definition)
  • expiration date (definition)
  • expiration (definition)
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    expiatory

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ekspi-ə-tôr′i )
    ( ekspi-ə-tō′ri )

    ex•pi•a•to•ry

    adj.

    [LL. expiatorius].

    1. Expiating; serving to expiate.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • Further Reading

  • expiable
  • expiate
  • expiation
  • expiator
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    expiator

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ekspi-ā′tẽr )

    expiator

    n.

    1. One who expiates.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • Further Reading

  • expiable
  • expiate
  • expiation
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    expiation

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ek′spi-āshən )

    ex•pi•a•tion

    n.

    [L. expiatio see EXPIATE].

    1. The act of atonement; to make amends for guilt or wrongdoing.
    2. The means for atonement; amends.

    —ex′pi•a•to′ry (-ə-tôr′ē, -tōr′ē ) adj.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • Encyclopedia Britannica Micropedia ©1984
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Related Terms

  • expiable
  • expiate
  • expiator
  • expiatory
  • Further Reading

  • expiation (definition)
  • expiation (definition)
  • Expiation (thesaurus)
  • Expiation (theology)
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    expiate

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ekspi-āt′ )

    ex•pi•ate

    v.t. [EXPIATED (-id) EXPIATING, EXPIATES]

    [< L. expiatus pp. of expiare to make satisfaction or atonement; ex-, out + piare, to atone, appease, propriate < pius devout, pious].

    1. To make atonement for, amends or reparation for (wrongdoing or guilt); atone for; pay the penalty.

    —ex′pi•a′tor n.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • expiable
  • expiation
  • expiator
  • expiatory
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    expiable

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ekspi-ə-b´l )

    ex•pi•a•ble

    adj.

    [Fr].

    1. Capable of being expiated.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • expiate
  • expiation
  • expiator
  • expiatory
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    expertise

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ek′spẽr-tēz )

    ex•pert•ise

    n.

    [Fr. < OFr. < expert, experienced. See EXPERT].

    1. Expert opinion or advice.
    2. Specialized skill, knowledge and training of an expert.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Read More »

    expert

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ekspẽrt )
    ( ik-spũrt )

    ex•pert

    adj.

    [ME.; OFr.; L. expertus pp. of experiri to try, see EXPERIENCE].

    1. Skillful; having extensive training and knowledge in a special field.
    2. Of or from an expert, such as "An expert opinion."

    n.

    1. A person who demonstrates a high degree of training, skill, knowledge and dexterity due to training and experience in a special field.
      • Military. The highest grade possible which can be achieved in marksmanship.
        • Rifleman; the highest of three ratings of proficiency. See sharpshooter, marksman.
        • A soldier who has achieved this rating.

    —ex′pert′ly adv. —ex′pert′ness n.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Read More »

    experimentation

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-sper′ə-men-tāshən )

    ex•per•i•men•ta•tion

    n.

    1. Act, process, practice of an experiment; using experiments.

    In modern philosophy of science it is the use of observation, classification, prediction and verification of a given hypothesis according to proper experiences. Claimed to be innovations promoted by the 17th century English philosopher Francis Bacon in modern time, the support of experimental method and critique of empty theorizing can be traced back to Aristotle.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • Encyclopedia Britannica Micropedia ©1984
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Related Terms

  • experiential
  • experiment
  • experimental
  • experimental neurosis
  • experimental psychology
  • experimental theater
  • experimentalism
  • experimentally
  • experimentation
  • Further Reading

  • experimentation (use in a sentence)
  • experimentation (definition)
  • Controlled experiment
  • experimentation (definition)
  • experimentation (definition)
  • experiment (definition)
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    experimentally

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-sper′ə-ment´l-i )

    ex•per•i•men•tal•ly

    adv.

    1. By experiments.
    2. As an experiment.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • Further Reading

  • experiment
  • experimental
  • experimentalism
  • experimentation
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    experimentalism

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-sper′ə-mentʼl-izʼm )
    ( ik′sper-ə-mentʼl-izʼm )

    ex•per•i•men•tal•ism

    n.

    1. The preference of relying on empirical and experimental methods to determine validity of any idea; Theory or practice of depending on experimentation; empiricism.
    2. Propensity for experimentation.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Further Reading

  • experiment
  • experimental
  • experimentally
  • experimentation
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    experimental

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-sper′ə-mentʼl )
    ( ek′sper-ə-mentʼl )

    ex•per•i•men•tal

    adj.

    1. Pertaining to or based on experience rather than theory or authority.
    2. Empirical; Founded upon, tested by, or having the nature of experiment.
    3. Given to, for the sake of experiment; testing; therefore,
    4. Tentative.
    5. Used for experiments.

    ex•per′i•men′tal•ly adv.

    Experimental Aircraft Association. Association founded in 1953 of enthusiasts interested in home-built aircraft.

    Experimental Fighting Biplane No. 1. An experimental aircraft built in 1913, by the Vickers company of Britain.

    Experimental geophysics. See geophysics and solid earth.

    Experimentalism. (Philosophy). See instrumentalism.

    Experimental Novel, The. Translation of LE ROMAN EXPÉRIMENTAL (1880) Émile Zola's manifesto of Naturalism, in which he applied to fiction the methods of observation and experiment practiced by the natural scientists.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • Encyclopedia Britannica Micropedia ©1984
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Related Terms

  • experiment
  • experimentalism
  • experimentally
  • experimentation
  • Further Reading

  • experimental economics (definition)
  • controlled experiment (definition)
  • experimental (definition)
  • experimental (definition)
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    experiment

    0

    Pronunciation key

    ( ik-spērə-ment )

    ex•per•i•ment

    n.

    [ME.; OFr.; L. experimentum a trial, test < experiri to try; see EXPERIENCE].

    1. Test or trial.
      • An action performed to discover something unknown, or to demonstrate something that is a known truth or to test the validity of a hypothesis.
      • An action performed to know whether it will be effective such as, An experiment allowing employees to choose their break time.
    2. The process of conducting such tests; experimentation.

    Experiment, GA
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    Experiment, Georgia

    An unincorporated village located in West Central Georgia, Spaulding County on the Central of the Georgia Railroad and U.S. highways 19 and 41; 2 miles NNW of Griffin. The village is the location of the Georgia experiment station operated by the University of Georgia College of Agriculture. Population in 1950 was 4,265 inhabitants.

    v.i.

    1. To conduct an experiment or experiments.

    —ex•per′i•ment′er n.

    Syn. Trial.

    An experiment is observation that are recorded under controlled conditions of which a series of events intended to demonstrate a possible regularity in the behavior of people, animals or objects. Almost all experiments involve some form of movement. One of the first experiments in history around 600 BC and was performed by Thales of Meletus. Thales observed that if a piece of amber were rubbed with fabric it acquired the property of attracting paperlight objects. The Greeks named this property electricity which was derived from the Greek term for amber. However, since Thales merely recorded what he saw he was not a true experimental scientist.

    A modern experimental scientist in the true sense, would apply the same observations to other materials to determine if they too produce some of the same results. He would also attempt to make quantitative determinations of this property in terms of the size of the of amber in combination with the length of time it is rubbed with fabric. The experimental scientist would attempt to explain the property in terms of phenomena observed and understood during previous experiments. In light of modern science and availability of information about atoms and molecular particles, Thales was at a great disadvantage. Modern methods and techniques of experimentation have grown far more complicated.

    From the simple concept of experimentation have grown several sciences which build knowledge on prior observations made under controlled conditions which guarantee identical results if repeated. Basic physic best exemplifies such a field of science. Many experiments are conducted and repeated often with an increasing degree of accuracy.

    In some fields of science it is not as easy to control the variables or artificially produce experimental results in the confines of a lab. Observational sciences such as astronomy or geology must rely on theories which are dignified only through collection of large amounts of data which has been previously collected. An astronomer cannot collect a sample of Mars' atmosphere and retire to the lab to analyze its composition though he can observe with a spectroscope what light is given off by the planet and indirectly deduce what gasses and chemical composition comprises the Martian atmosphere. However, his results will be no more accurate than his experimental techniques.

    Biology often relies on indirect methods of experiment and correlation of data since it deals with living creatures and restricted in the control it can exhibit. Living organisms differ individual to individual therefore, typically, scientists restrict studies to groups and interpret their results in terms of averages. To obtain final results they must use indirect methods for evaluation such as statistics. If working with nonliving specimens the problem is complicated by changes that that occur in tissues after life has expired. Obtaining conclusive results in such cases biologists must use the indirect methods of comparison between the living and nonliving organism to interpret his research.

    Experiment in Autobiography. A book by H.G. Wells (1934). (Archive)

    Experiment in International Living. An educational exchange institution established in 1932 to promote international understanding. It operates the School for International Training in Brattleboro, Vermont. During the 1980's it had representative nationalities in 64 countries.

    See Science, Experimental Sciences, Scientific Method, Science Projects, Sociology (Controlled Experiments).
    Experiment Station, see Agricultural Experiment Station.

    References

  • Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
  • The American Peoples Encyclopedia ©1960
  • The World Book Encyclopedia ©1981
  • Encyclopedia Britannica Micropedia ©1984
  • The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition ©1985
  • Related Terms

  • experiential
  • experimental
  • experimental neurosis
  • experimental psychology
  • experimental theater
  • experimentalism
  • experimentally
  • experimentation
  • Further Reading

  • University of Georgia College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences
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  • experiment (definition)
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  • experiment (definition)
  • experiment (definition)
  • experiment (definition)
  • experiment (definition)
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